How much choline do you need a day?

EFSA sets an adequate intake of 400 mg a day for adults, 480 mg in pregnancy and 520 mg during breastfeeding. It is covered by eggs, liver, meat, fish and legumes, so the useful question before buying is how much of that is in your diet.

Does alpha-GPC improve strength?

The trial cited to support it found no differences in the two isometric strength tests or in psychomotor vigilance after seven days with 250 or 500 mg. It did see differences in jump velocity and peak power, with the best response at the low dose. It is a partial result with no dose-response.

Alpha-GPC, citicoline or choline bitartrate?

They are different forms with different choline content per milligram and different trial histories. They cannot be compared milligram for milligram, and bitartrate at high doses is the one most associated with fishy body odour.

Is choline bad for the heart because of TMAO?

What exists is an association: in a study of 4007 patients, high blood TMAO levels were associated with more major cardiovascular events, and TMAO is produced by the gut microbiota from dietary choline. It is not proof that choline causes harm, but it is a reason not to take high doses chronically without need.

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Choline and alpha-GPC · Weak evidence

What choline and alpha-GPC are for

The short answer. Choline is a real nutrient: EFSA sets an adequate intake of 400 mg a day for adults, and most people cover it with eggs, liver, meat and legumes. Alpha-GPC is another story: a form of choline sold in pre-workouts as a strength and focus booster. The trial most often cited for that found differences in jump velocity and peak power, and nothing in the two isometric strength tests or the psychomotor vigilance test. It is a partial result, not an endorsement.

Reviews find no consistent effect. It is listed because it sells, not because it works. No figure on this page is attributed to a specific product: the effect belongs to the ingredient and every number carries its source next to it.

01 What it does and how much

Each row is a measured effect, with the figure the study gives and the source number. Where the evidence gives no figure, the column says so instead of making up a percentage.

Effects of choline with their source
Effect	How much	Detail
Adequate intake of choline	400 mg/day	For adults, set by EFSA based on the average intake observed in healthy European Union populations. It rises to 480 mg in pregnancy and 520 mg during breastfeeding. [1]
Isometric strength with alpha-GPC	no differences	Neither the isometric mid-thigh pull nor the upper-body isometric test showed differences between groups after seven days with 250 or 500 mg a day. [2]
Psychomotor vigilance	no differences	The mental focus side, which is how it is sold, did not move in the same trial. [2]
Countermovement jump	differences in velocity and power	Here there were differences between groups, with the best response in the 250 mg group, the one taking less. A result like that, with no dose-response and the other tests flat, needs replication before being accepted. [2]
Blood choline	+132% and +59%	Free serum choline did rise versus placebo with 500 and 250 mg. A marker moving does not mean performance moves: that is exactly what this trial shows. [2]
TMAO and cardiovascular risk	HR 2.54	High levels of TMAO, a metabolite the gut microbiota produces from dietary choline, were associated with more major cardiovascular events comparing the highest quartile with the lowest. It is an association in a large observational study, not proof that supplementing choline causes harm. [3]

02 How to take it

Dose. 400 mg of choline a day as the intake reference. Alpha-GPC was tested at 250 and 500 mg a day.
When. Choline as a nutrient, with meals. Pre-workout alpha-GPC is taken before training, although the trial gave it daily for a week.
How long before you notice it. The alpha-GPC trial measured after 7 days of intake.

Details that change the result

A couple of eggs provide a substantial part of the day’s adequate intake. Before buying choline, check whether eggs, liver and legumes are already covering it.
Alpha-GPC, citicoline and choline bitartrate are not interchangeable: they provide different fractions of choline per milligram and have been tested in different contexts.
High-dose choline can cause a fishy body odour, especially as bitartrate.
The TMAO finding is an observational association and should not be read as dietary choline being dangerous: it is a reason not to take high doses without need, which is different.

03 When it makes sense and when it does not

Worth it if

With low intake of eggs, liver, meat and legumes, where reaching 400 mg a day is hard.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding, where the reference rises, and always with medical follow-up.

Not worth it if

As a strength booster: the alpha-GPC trial found no differences in either of the two isometric strength tests.
As a nootropic for focus before training, where the psychomotor vigilance test did not move either.
At high doses, chronically and without need, given the association between TMAO and cardiovascular events.

04 Sources

Every figure above comes from here. They are position stands from scientific societies, meta-analyses and peer-reviewed reviews: if a claim cannot hang from one of these lines, it is not on the page. References are cited in their original form.

EFSA NDA Panel. Dietary Reference Values for choline. EFSA Journal. 2016;14(8):4484. Ingesta adecuada de 400 mg/dia para todos los adultos, 480 mg/dia en el embarazo y 520 mg/dia en la lactancia. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4484
Marcus L et al. Evaluation of the effects of two doses of alpha glycerylphosphorylcholine on physical and psychomotor performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14:39. Cuarenta y ocho varones, 7 dias con 250 o 500 mg de alfa-GPC: sin diferencias en tiron isometrico, prueba isometrica de tren superior ni vigilancia psicomotora; diferencias entre grupos en velocidad maxima y potencia mecanica maxima del salto, con la mayor mejora en el grupo de 250 mg; colina libre en suero elevada un 132 % y un 59 % frente a placebo. doi:10.1186/s12970-017-0196-5
Tang WHW et al. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(17):1575-1584. En 4007 pacientes seguidos 3 anos, el cuartil mas alto de TMAO frente al mas bajo se asocio a mas eventos cardiovasculares graves (HR 2,54; IC 95 % 1,96-3,28). doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1109400

This is not medical advice. It is what some studies say about an ingredient, not a protocol for you. With an illness, medication or pregnancy involved, the decision belongs to a healthcare professional who knows you.

Questions about choline

Answered with the data on this page

How much choline do you need a day?: EFSA sets an adequate intake of 400 mg a day for adults, 480 mg in pregnancy and 520 mg during breastfeeding. It is covered by eggs, liver, meat, fish and legumes, so the useful question before buying is how much of that is in your diet.
Does alpha-GPC improve strength?: The trial cited to support it found no differences in the two isometric strength tests or in psychomotor vigilance after seven days with 250 or 500 mg. It did see differences in jump velocity and peak power, with the best response at the low dose. It is a partial result with no dose-response.
Alpha-GPC, citicoline or choline bitartrate?: They are different forms with different choline content per milligram and different trial histories. They cannot be compared milligram for milligram, and bitartrate at high doses is the one most associated with fishy body odour.
Is choline bad for the heart because of TMAO?: What exists is an association: in a study of 4007 patients, high blood TMAO levels were associated with more major cardiovascular events, and TMAO is produced by the gut microbiota from dietary choline. It is not proof that choline causes harm, but it is a reason not to take high doses chronically without need.

And now, which to buy

Prices, kept apart from the evidence

This page explains what choline does and deliberately names no brand. The comparison is the other half: 24 products from 2 stores from €0.030 per capsule, sorted by price and by how verifiable their certification is.

See the choline and alpha-gpc comparison

Other guides

What each supplement does, with its sources